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Understanding why people volunteer is an important factor in developing effective volunteer programs. Although economic factors may affect an individual's ability to volunteer, it is also important to determine whether people in at-risk communities have different motivations for becoming involved in volunteer programs.

Clary and Snyder (1991) suggest that volunteering may provide opportunities for individuals to meet a variety of social and psychological needs. Their "functional approach" for studying volunteer motivation in at-risk communities is particularly important because it considers the relationship between an individual’s psychological needs, past experiences, current life circumstances, and stage of development.

Six Functions of Motivation

The six functions of motivation identified by Clary and Snyder include:

1. Understanding function: Brings attitudes in line with a more general understanding of the world around them; how things and people work.
2. Value function: Helps people express attitudes of deeply held values and convictions.
3. Protective function: Helps a person deal with stress, anxiety, and inner conflict.
4. Social function: Allows interaction and cooperation, as well as social contacts with important reference groups.
5. Career function: Deals with attitudes on experiences, rewards, and benefits to the individual.
6. Esteem function: Deals with the individual attitudes of competence and self-worth.

The results of several studies conducted using the framework developed by Clary and Snyder found considerable variability in the motivations that were perceived as most and least important (Clary & Snyder, 1991; Cole, 1998). These studies concluded that there is no single motivational reason for volunteerism (Cole 1998).

Studies have also shown that the benefits of volunteering do not vary by age, race, and gender (Morrow-Howell, Hong, & Tang 2009). Although people volunteer for different reasons, personal values remain the strongest factor in deciding whether an individual chooses to volunteer.

Recruiting Volunteers in At-Risk Communities

There are several things to consider in recruiting volunteers from at-risk communities. It is important to keep the following in mind:

1. Values play the biggest role in motivating individuals to volunteer. Research has been found that people from lower-income communities are more likely to report value-based motivations.

(Morrow-Howell, Hong, & Tang 2009). Volunteer recruitment messages should include value statements and benefits and use inclusive language.

Example: Right now, a young person in your community is in need of an adult like you. By contributing just a few hours each month, you can make a big difference in a young person's life, enrich your own life, and strengthen your community. Everyone is welcome! Contact us today to learn how you can volunteer!

At-risk populations are generally less motivated by issue-oriented action. Volunteer recruitment strategies for an issue in high-risk communities should make a connection of the direct benefits to the local community while appealing to individuals’ sense of right and wrong, strongly held beliefs, and the community’s social norms.

Example: Vandalism destroys neighborhoods—your property values go down, businesses you count on leave, and your community feels less safe. Help re-direct our community youth by volunteering in an afterschool program.

2. Develop messages that identify the direct personal development benefits of volunteering.

The messages should demonstrate how volunteers will learn new skills and ideas, explore and build on their strengths, and share their knowledge and skills with others.

Example: Develop a "Top Ten Benefits of Volunteering" list that includes statements such as the following:

• Develop skills to succeed in the workplace.
• Improve goal setting and decision-making skills.
• Become a community leader.
• Make change happen for the better.
• Meet new people.
• Find low-cost solutions to community problems.
• Tap into new talent and energy.

3. Offer stipends and/or career benefits when recruiting individuals for specialized programs in high-risk communities.

This is especially important for grant-funded programs that address specific at-risk issues and require volunteers to assume key roles in implementing program activities. Offering stipends may help attract college interns, teachers during summer break, or volunteers participating in employee incentive programs who possess subject knowledge and skills needed for these roles.

Example: Do you need experience for your resume? Think about volunteering. As a volunteer, you will develop valuable leadership skills to help you get ahead, along with communication skills needed for success in any job. Get the edge on the competition—volunteer today!

4. Use the Volunteer Functions Inventory

(Clary & Snyder, 1992) to initially survey a potential target audience. The results can provide the information needed to develop promotional and recruitment materials that address the key motivations of the target group of potential volunteers.

This survey can also be valuable for volunteer retention. When the volunteer role aligns with an individual’s motivation for becoming involved, the volunteer is more likely to be satisfied and continue serving in that role.

5. Provide recruitment material in various formats, including, but not limited to, social media posts, paper flyers and brochures, banners, and other promotional materials.

Ensure that at least one non-electronic form of contact (e.g., a phone number) is provided to accommodate older populations that may not use email or individuals with limited internet access.

6. Provide ongoing training.

Continued support and training help adult volunteers grow developmentally while also providing educational benefits to the youth they serve. Some populations, such as older Hispanics and African Americans, may experience greater benefits from ongoing training (Morrow-Howell, Hong, & Tang 2009).

References

• Clary, E.G., Snyder, M. (1991). A functional analysis of altruism and prosocial behavior: The case of volunteerism. Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 12. Newbury Park CA: Sage.
• Clary, E.G., Snyder, M., & Ridge, R.D. (1992). Volunteers' motivations: A functional strategy for the recruitment, placement, and retention of volunteers. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 2, 333-350.
• Cole, D.L. (1998). Motivational functions of volunteerism: Similarities and differences between low and high risk communities. Thesis research study in four communities, New Jersey.
• Katz, D. (1960). The functional approach to the study of attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, 163-204.
• Morrow-Howell, N., Hong, S. I., & Tang, F. (2009). Who benefits from volunteering? Variations in perceived benefits. The Gerontologist, 49(1), 91-102.

Based on the work of Deborah L. Cole, Atlantic County 4-H Agent

November 2026